Narrative Structure and Narrative Function From Movies The English Patient Essay

Plot is series of events, usually presented in chronological or causal order. That’s a plot, a sequence of events. Story would be a narrative connection between all these events. That’s what’s missing. The film opens with an introduction to Hana, a young nurse. She lives in an abandoned villa, the Villa San Girolamo, that is filled with hidden, undetonated bombs. In her care is the English Patient. All that she knows about the patient is that he was burned beyond recognition in a plane crash before being taken to the hospital by a Bedouin tribe and that he claims to be English. The only possession that the Patient came with was a copy of Herodotus’ histories that he carried through the fire. He has annotated these histories and, in a sense, become a part of them. He is constantly remembering his explorations in the desert in great detail, but cannot state his own name. The Patient is, in fact, Là ¡szlà ³ de Almà ¡sy, a Hungarian desert explorer. He, however, chose to erase his identity and nationality. It is unknown whether this was for protection or as a metaphorical statement. Prompted to tell his story, the Patient begins to reveal all. He had an affair with Geoffrey Clifton’s wife, Katharine. They both accompanied the patient’s desert exploration team. The Patient’s job was to draw maps of the desert and The Cliftons’ plane made this job much easier. One of their earlier discoveries was the â€Å"cave of swimmers†. Almà ¡sy fell in love with Katherine Clifton one night as she read from Herodotus’ histories aloud around a campfire. They soon began a very intense affair, but in 1938, Katharine cut it off, claiming that Geoffrey would go mad if he discovered them. Geoffrey, however, does find out of the affair when he tricks her into thinking he’s out of town for the day (wanting to surprise her for their first wedding anniversary) and sees Katherine getting into a car. When World War II broke out in 1939, the members of the exploration team decided to pack up base camp and Geoffrey Clifton offered to pick up Almà ¡sy in his plane. However, Geoffrey Clifton arrived with Katharine and tried to kill all three of them by crashing the plane, leaving Almà ¡sy in the desert to die. Geoffrey Clifton was immediately killed. Katharine was also horribly injured. Almà ¡sy took her to â€Å"the cave of swimmers† and covered her with a parachute so he could leave to find help. After four days, he reached a town, but the British were suspicious of him because he had a foreign sounding last name. They locked him up as a spy. When Almà ¡sy finally gets away, he knew it was too late to save Katharine so he joined the Germans, helping their spies cross the desert into Cairo in exchange for gas and a car to get back to Katherine. After leaving Cairo, his car broke down in the desert. He went to the cave of swimmers to find Katharine. He retrieved her body and took it to the crashed plane which had been buried under the sand. He tried to fly back to civilization, but the plane malfunctioned during flight. Almà ¡sy parachuted down covered in flames which was where the Bedouins found him. Caravaggio, who had had suspicions that the Patient was not English, fills in details. Geoffrey Clifton was, in fact, an English spy and had intelligence about Almà ¡sy’s affair with Katharine. He also had intelligence that Almà ¡sy was already working with the Germans but whether he was or not is unclear. The film also focuses on Kip. Kip’s brother had always distrusted the West, but Kip entered the British Army willingly. He was trained as a sapper by Lord Suffolk, an English gentleman, who welcomed Kip into his family. Under Lord Suffolk’s training, Kip became very skilled at his job. When Lord Suffolk and his team get blown up by a bomb, Kip becomes separated from the world and emotionally removed from everyone. He decides to leave England and begin defusing bombs in Italy. Kip forms a romantic relationship with Hana and uses it to reconnect to humanity. He becomes a part of a community again and begins to feel comfortable as a lover. Then he hears news of the atomic bomb being dropped on Japan. He becomes enraged. He feels deceived and betrayed by this western world that he has tried to assimilate to. He threatens to kill the English Patient, but instead just leaves the Villa. For some time after their separation Hana wrote Kip letters, but he never responded. She eventually stopped. Years later Kip is happily married with children and is a successful doctor; however, he still often thinks of Hana. The film is set during World War II and depicts a critically burned man, at first known only as ‘the English patient’, who is being looked after by Hana, a French-Canadian nurse in a ruined Italian monastery. The patient is suffering from amnesia, but through a series of flashbacks he is gradually able to rediscover his past. It is slowly revealed that he is in fact a Hungarian geographer, Count Là ¡szlà ³ de Almà ¡sy, who was making a map of the Sahara Desert, and whose affair with a married woman ultimately brought about his present situation. As the patient remembers more, David Caravaggio, a Canadian thief, arrives at the monastery. Caravaggio lost his thumbs while being interrogated by officers of the German Africa Corps, and he gradually reveals that it was the patient’s actions that had brought about his torture. In addition to the patient’s story, the film devotes time to Hana and her romance with Kip, an Indian sapper in the British Army. Due to various events in her past, Hana believes that anyone who comes close to her is likely to die, and Kip’s position as a bomb defuser makes their romance full of tension. Narrator Function: The narrator is omniscient, and conveys the points of view of several different characters. The narrator is capable of knowing, seeing, and telling whatever he or she wishes. It is characterized by freedom in shifting from the exterior world to the inner selves of a number of characters and a freedom and movement in both time and place but to and event greater extent characterize it by the freedom of the narrator to comment on the meaning of actions.    Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_English_Patient A Hand Book to Litrature by C. Hugh Holman, William Harmon

Confirming Alzehimer’s Disease

Running head: Confirming Alzheimer’s Disease Confirming Alzheimer’s Disease Carissa Davis Walden University Diagnosis and Assessments 6720 Confirming Alzheimer’s Disease The Forgetful Mail Carrier Han’s is a 66 year old retired government worker that has been dealing with issues related to his memory. Han’s retired at the age of 60 because he could no longer perform his duties at work properly. The problems with his work performance had been an issue for five years before his retirement. At the age of 62, he could not remember the way home while leading a hike in an area he was familiar with and knew well.Over time his memory problems have become more noticeable and he even has failed to recognize good friends. He has become more and more quiet, given up his hobbies and lost interest in the newspaper and television. His wife is not comfortable leaving him alone because of his memory issues (Butcher, Mineka, ;amp; Hooley, 2010). Confirm Diagnosis Dem entia of the Alzheimer Type is a diagnosis of exclusion, other causes for the cognitive deficits must be ruled out first (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).This diagnosis is normally given after all other potential causes are ruled out by medical and family history, along with a physical examination including laboratory test in some cases (Butcher, Mineka, ;amp; Hooley). Han’s has no sign of a medical condition that would be a factor in his memory failure. Han’s symptoms do not fit diagnostic criteria (C) for vascular dementia or other dementias due to other general medical conditions (APA). After the other possible diagnoses are ruled out then I must insure that Han meets the criteria for dementia of the Alzheimer type.Hans’ memory failures meet the criteria for A1. His inability to find his way home in an area that he has lived for 40 years meets the criteria for 2(d). The next criteria for this diagnoses requires that the cognitive deficits in A1 and A2 cause significant impairment in social or occupational functioning and represents a significant decline for a previous level functioning (APA, 2000). The fact that his memory failure required him to retire early shows a significant impairment in occupational functioning.Han not recognizing his close friends and giving up hobbies shows a significant impairment in social function. There are standardized published rating scales that can be used to measure the severity of impairment (APA, 2000). Criteria D requires cognitive deficits in A1 and A2 are not caused by other central nervous system conditions (1), systemic conditions that are known to cause dementia (2) or substance induced conditions (3). The information that I have would lead me to believe that this clients condition is not related one, two or three of criteria D.Criteria E requires that the deficits do not occur exclusively during the course of delirium, which they do not (APA). Criteria F requires the disturbance not to better accounted for by another disorder (APA). This is an area that I felt another disorder might need to be considered. The fact that Han has begun to speak less and less, given up his hobbies, has not interest in the newspaper or televisions could be cause to diagnosis him with Major Depressive Disorder due to Alzheimer’s with depressive features, 293. 83 (APA). This could be listed along with 294. 10 Dementia of the Alzheimer’s type with early onset.The early onset needs to be the specify subtype because is memory failure began before the age of 65. Counseling There is no treatment or cure for Alzheimer’s disease that will reverse the loss that this disease causes. The treatment that is used is to work the clients and their families to diminish agitiation and aggression in the patients. Also to help the family deal with the stress of caring for a family member who is suffering from this disease. As a counselor I would help this client reduce frustration and embarrassment that they might feel because of this disease.In this type of situation I would see my professional services helping the family of the client. Taking care of a loved one that is suffering from Alzheimer’s can be stressful and demanding. Helping caregives learn how to distress and cope the stress will benefit them along with the person they was caring for.References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). DSM-IV-TR. Arlington, VA: Author. Butcher, J. N. , Mineka, S. , ;amp; Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal psychology (14th ed. ). Boston, MA: Allyn ;amp; Bacon.

Culture In Australian Universities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Culture In Australian Universities - Essay Example From my point of view, this culture is widely based on inquisitiveness that involves the search of information on almost everything regardless of its importance to the students. This comes in the perspective of practical use and application. This phenomenon has made it difficult for thousands of students in Australia to cope up with its demands. The kind of rampant interest that comes along with the curiosity has called upon the emergence of innovative and inventive aspects among students from a varied perspective. Many people have also come to criticize the innate curiosity behavior, though it has over the years been linked with advantageous aspects like the development of involving disciplines. This is in the field of biotechnology, computer science and nuclear physics that demand immense research and involvement in an aspect that most Australian universities have come to blend into. The latter culture unlike in other regions calls for a lot of critical thinking. Despite the fact that academic works in universities having to be built through a lot of involving processes. The same calls for immense adaptation to rational argument developments, testing and observations with support and evidence forming a core to almost any academic work done. Such kind of a culture is always rampant not only in Australian universities but in almost any university, with a strong reliance on intuition, unsupported opinions from a personal perspective or hearsay aspects being shunned with immense energies. Australia is well known as a good university study destination especially for the English Speaking states. Currently, more than two hundred thousand international students are enrolled in all universities across Australia. It is essential to comprehend that universities have their particular culture and adjusting to the universities culture usually takes a lot of effort and time. In studying both Australian and International first year students, it is evident that most of these students lack the experience needed in critical reading, appropriate citing and complete understanding of the academic games. Although most students do not provide information about the difficulties associated with settling in universities especially during the first year, enough contests have been organized and incredible information acquired. It is essential to have the university management have complete involvement in the entire process of settling down especially in the case of international students. In this research paper, a lot of information will be provided regarding the varied ways in which different students adapt to the university’s culture and the methods used in avoiding difficult experiences. One main factor that students should fight to overcome in their initial university years is culture shock. This phenomenon includes experiences related to transitions that are encountered by various individuals due to inability of using familiar or well-known cultures in the universities. These cultures could be used to convey, validate, reference and understand key aspects included in a culture and as used in identifying others. The impacts of culture shock are caused by continued or rather prolonged periods of conflicting self or personal ideas since the cultures are not well identified. Among the many difficulties are those

Systems and community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Systems and community - Essay Example It is generally accepted that the strength and resilience of a community is directly proportional to the frequency at which individual members communicate with each other. Internet has revolutionized the way people communicate with each other and it has spawned numerous internet communities where individual members get together and communicate with each other on specific issues much like real world communities. However, this communication and interaction is only of a virtual nature and several researchers feel that a virtual interaction cannot be a substitute for real life interaction that can be achieved through face to face news and information exchanges between members, or, through a very common activity as playing a group game. But there are an almost equal number of social researchers that are of the opinion that the nature of communities is undergoing a metamorphosis where the traditional concept of community is gradually fading out with the internet communities filling in that void. This group of researchers contends that internet communities are not necessarily restricted to the virtual world and there are increasing instances where exchange of physical resources is being done among virtual community members. So, a new setup where both virtual and real co-exists in their relevant spheres and complement each other is fast taking a concrete and irreversible shape. This group of researchers feels that in spite of a stupendous level of connectivity fostered by internet, the spirit of community and civic engagement is collapsing and members of the society are becoming increasingly disconnected with each other leading to irredeemable loss of social capital. This is more accentuated by the easy and cheap alternative provided by the internet where individuals can interact globally on issues that might be slightly remoter than the more immediate issues that

Assessment and Application of International Affairs Theories Essay

Assessment and Application of International Affairs Theories - Essay Example ce of international relations in the society, mainly the application of the IR theories in the aforementioned fields has immensely shaped human existence. The theoretical frameworks within the discipline assist in the explanation of the global activities/events, the identification of the most important international actors, and the different means of exertion of influence from the international platform. Moreover, the IR theories assist nations or heads of states and their foreign policy advisors during the conduction of foreign policy. There exist different IR theories that work towards the presentation of the critical events and happenings around the world. These theories assist governments in the processes of policy making, relations with other governments, and activities that occur among nations. These theories include liberalism, neo-liberalism, classical realism, constructivism, post-structuralism, Marxism, and post-modernism. These are not, however, the only IR theories. While some may be insufficient in the explanation of the aforementioned, there are theories that can be combined to offer an articulate elucidation of global events, government relations and foreign policy, and the issue of power and interaction. Among the outlined theories, liberalism, classical realism, and post structuralism are the most effective in the explanation the contemporary and past experiences in the world, and the actors that exert international influence. In addition, these theories are the most effective in offering heads of states the assistance they need in conducting foreign policy. The application of the liberalism theoretical framework of the international theory can offer an articulate explanation of the relations among governments, and major occurrences that involve decisions by the heads of states. The development of theory emanates from the society’s quest to explain the relations through the disregard of classical realism. However, emphasizes on the exploration

What does freedom of the press mean To what extent does it exist in Assignment

What does freedom of the press mean To what extent does it exist in modern Britain - Assignment Example On the corresponding side, we find that many countries have the ‘freedom of information laws’ or the ‘sunshine laws’ that while defining the scope and extent of the so called ‘national security /interest,’ also allows a citizen to take legal recourses, where he can appeal to get access to government protected information at a minimal charge. UK has implemented this freedom of Information Act 2000 s. 36 (The National Archives, Freedom of Information Act 2000), which gives freedom to its people to access certain parts of the protected information. In this article, I will examine the concept of freedom of press, and will study to find its relevance in modern day UK. Discussion The ‘right to express’ falls under the category of basic human rights and civil liberties, where the state is under obligation to provide for these fundamental rights to its citizens, under the International Convention of human rights, and also the European Conve ntion of human rights. ... Freedom of press is generally covered under the provisions freedom of speech or the right to express, where publications by the press receive the same legal protections as are given to any the other forms of publication, and oral speeches. Freedom of press is seen to be the core feature of democracy, while â€Å"censorship and other restrictions on the press are the hallmark of totalitarian and suppressive regimes† (Baldock, Manning and Vickerstaff, 2007, 100). However it is not always necessary that a government be openly suppressive or manipulative, in its control over the press. There are often more subtle and insidious means (as seen in UK) over controlling the press and blocking or limiting the available information, thus making reporting difficult on certain incidents (ibid). In this context we will now examine as to how the press operates in UK, and will explore to see whether it is really as Baldock, Manning and Vickerstaff claim that the UK government cuts down on the freedom of the press in a very subtle manner. The Human Rights Act (HRA) that was passed on 9th November 1998 by the UK government (made effective from 2nd October 2000), was aimed at giving more force to the rights, framed within the European Convention on Human Rights. The HRA, which provides for individual rights in UK, also gives the press freedom to express. Thus, from the government’s point of view, we find that there are indeed provisions made for the freedom of press in UK. However in the last few years it has been seen that the freedom of press has turned into a nightmare of sorts, for many of the celebrities and well known personalities in UK. This has led to speculations, both within the general public and the government, as to

E learning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

E learning - Research Paper Example Despite these strengths and opportunities, e-learning faces several distinct barriers. These barriers will be explored in this paper. Diverse barriers to e-learning can prevent or delay the effective design or implementation of e-learning programs. This section discusses some of the widespread categories of hindrances to e-learning. Table 1 shows the various barriers to e-learning that are arranged according to publication. Inadequate technological tools, such as lack of computers, and poor or limited Internet availability can impede the adoption of e-learning. Poorly designed e-learning programs are barriers to e-learning too. The learning system for e-learning must be applied to preservice teaching, and if not, there will be problems in the design and implementation of e-learning. In India, schools do not have sufficient equipment for delivering e-learning, especially in rural areas, and bandwidth problems are also widespread concerns. The absence of a reliable ICT infrastructure shapes e-learning adoption similarly. Negative stereotypes against older learners impact the participation of older students in e-learning platforms (334). Lack of ICT knowledge and skills among older students are barriers to e-learning too. Teachers are more likely to implement e-learning, if it is aligned with public educations policies and standards. KSA must go over the possibility of mandating e-learning across public education levels to enhance its adoption. Differences in policies and implementation because of administrative dimensions can affect e-learning diffusion. Poor professional development toward e-learning can be attributed to the organization because of lack of resources and/or political will and unity. Teachers may not adopt e-learning if they do not see that the administration as supportive to the skills training and other needs of e-learning platform. Poor alignment between e-learning goals and curriculum can hinder e-learning effectiveness. Table 1 shows

A Communist Manifesto and Social Movements Essay

A Communist Manifesto and Social Movements - Essay Example Generally speaking, Marx set forth a theory in which conflict, or class struggle, was both caused and perpetuated by a division of individuals into a bourgeois group and a proletarian group. The bourgeois controlled the means of production in a capitalist system and the proletariat functioned as labor for wages. In this way, still speaking generally, the bourgeois were in possession of wealth and resources and the proletariat, wages aside were largely powerless and dispossessed. Marx refined this general model by characterizing a variety of social and economic relationships according to this framework; indeed, attempting to emphasize the pervasive nature of this bourgeoise-proletariat divide, he stated that, Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes (Marx, 1848: np). Thus, Marx viewed the social forces driving societies towards a proletarian revolution as being essentially twofold. ... an initial matter, from a historical point of view, Marx did credit the bourgeois with aiding in the downfall of the old feudal classes; on the other hand, he characterized this development as predictable and as a temporary ascension to power.

Employment Discrimination based on Religion Research Paper

Employment Discrimination based on Religion - Research Paper Example Furthermore, in a workplace, several employees are often viewed to request for not to work on certain days due to religious holidays and also seek for a break for prayer. Hypothetically, diverse religious based activities might raise several arguments concerning the protection of rights of the employees in workplace. These activities can be regarded as major subjects of concern revealing that every citizen possesses the right of expressing their individual religious beliefs. Furthermore, the activities can also be duly considered as a debatable issue for organizations towards accommodating the right of individuals without compromising organizational objectives. The organizations must possess the responsibility to maintain proper balance with respect to employment rights, treatment of each employees and profitability (Evans, 2007). With this concern, this paper intends to analyze the issue concerning employment discrimination particularly based upon religion and providing effective solutions to address and mitigate this critical issue. Identification of the Problem of Religious Discrimination in Employment In general, discrimination denotes partial or detrimental treatment according to personal characteristic. There lays a greater need to understand the aspects of religion and belief for the purpose of identifying the problem associated with employment discrimination based on the aspect of religion. Precisely, religion is described as a belief and worship of a personal preference of god or an acknowledged system of conviction. On the other hand, the word belief is used for a system of moral belief which directs one’s life. Thus, based on these aspects, religious discrimination is often characterized by preconception, unfair conduct and harassment or any other form of violence based on individual religion or belief. Religious discrimination denotes a disadvantageous consideration or distinction of individuals according to religious affiliation, individual belief, faith oriented appearance or expected religiou s relationship. Unfair treatment and hostility based personal beliefs are quite common in organizations and they are often endangered by prejudgment, particularly towards certain religious sections (Evans, 2007). According to the observation made by European Network against Racism (2007), individuals are frequently subjected to discrimination on numerous bases. For instance, in the year 2007, the survey of Eurobarometer Report on Discrimination stated that about 44% of Europeans felt discrimination based on religion. The ‘third country nationals’ particularly the undocumented migrants, the Jewish and Muslim communities are especially susceptible towards religious discrimination. For these communities, religious individuality is usually observed as closely associated with racial identity (European Network against Racism, 2007). Religious discrimination in employment occurs when an organization treat employees less positively based on religion or certain belief. For insta nce, an organization can discharge an employee who belongs to Muslim religion. According to the report of The US Census Bureau, the percentage of the US population, comprising Asian origin has augmented extensively during the period 1990 to 2000. Immigration also augmented the diversity among black Americans as new immigrants appeared from Caribbean and Africa. The American organizations have also observed a corresponding increase in workforce diversity. In the year 1999, the number of immigrant employees in the US was about 15.7 million, representing 12% of the workforce. Moreover, during the period 1990 to 1998, about 12.7 million new employments were created in the US and among them about 5.1 million i.e. 38% were

Disadvantages of Globalization Essay Example for Free

Disadvantages of Globalization Essay One of the disadvantages of globalization is the over-standardization of products through global branding. Using Emirate Airline to illustrate this point, globalization will means that their services are standardized which aim to serve all customers. They would lose their uniqueness of the business culture after they go global. Also, the over-globalization will result in the lack of creativity and product diversity Hongladarom (2002), Zekos (2004). Moreover, globalization can also create diseconomies of scale as not all countries have the same growth and economic cycle. For example, Emirate may operate very well in the Middle East and Europe market but expanding into Asia or America market will reduce their profit. This could be due to difficulties of coordinating activities in those new markets or the culture differences. It is also important to note that globalization will cause de-industrialization and high unemployment in the domestic market. Empirical evidences included: Mello (1997), Rodrik (1996), Fagerberg (1994).

Understanding The Stereochemistry Of Organic Compounds Environmental Sciences Essay

Understanding The Stereochemistry Of Organic Compounds Environmental Sciences Essay Stereoisomers are defined as molecules of identical atomic compositions (molecular formulas), but with different bonding arrangements of atoms or orientation of their atoms in space. Based on this definition, several types of isomerism are possible including constitutional, configurational, and conformational isomerism. Constitutional isomers (also called structural or positional isomers) are molecules with the same atomic composition but different bonding arrangements between atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone . All of these compounds have the same atomic composition (C6H6O2), but different bonding arrangements of atoms and are thus distinct chemical entities with different chemical and physical properties. Stereochemistry (from the the greek stereos,meaning solid) refers to chemistry in three dimensions. Since most molecules are three dimension , stereochemistry ,infact, prevade all chemistry. It is not so much a branch of the subject as a point of view, and wheather one choose to take this point of view in any given situation depends on the problem one wants to solve and on the tools one has available to solve it. We factorize stereochemistry into its ststic and dynamic aspects.STATIC stereochemistry (better called stereochemistry of molecules) deals with the counting of stereoisomer, with their structure, with their energy and with their physical and most of their spectral property. DYNAMIC stereochemistry(stereochemistry of reaction) deals with the stereochemical requirement and stereochemical outcome of chemical reactions, including interconversion of conformational isomerms. If we represent the following imaginary molecule with no stereochemistry, there is nothing apparently special about it: However, if we represent it fully, including the position of atoms in space, it becomes apparent that the description above is vague, as it encompasses two molecules; those below: This is what stereochemistry is we can define compounds into many way and can also originate many new compouds. So stereochemistry is chemistry that studies the property of isomers. HISTORY Historically the origins of stereochemistry stem from the discovery of plane polarized light by the french physicist MALUS. In 1815 biot note that certain natural organic compounds rotate plane polarized light as ARGO(1811), discovered that a quartz plate, cut at a right angle to its crystal axis ,rotates the plane polarized light through an angle proportional to the thickness of the plate. S ome quartz crystal rotate towards left while some to the right. However in 1847 LOUIS PASTEUR find that equimolar solution of seprated mixture have equal but opposite optical activity. In 1874 LEBEL and VANT-HOFF proposes that carbon with 4 attachment is tetrahedral and a molecule having a teahedral geometry will exist as pair of two isomer. ISOMERISM Isomers are defined as molecules of identical atomic compositions (molecular formulas), but with different bonding arrangements of atoms or orientation of their atoms in space. Based on this definition, several types of isomerism are possible including constitutional, configurational, and conformational isomerism. Constitutional isomers (also called structural or positional isomers) are molecules with the same atomic composition but different bonding arrangements between atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone . All of these compounds have the same atomic composition (C6H6O2), but different bonding arrangements of atoms and are thus distinct chemical entities with different chemical and physical properties. GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM Geometric isomers have the same empirical formula or molecular formula and also the same structural formula, but have a different relative arrangement of the substituent groups. For example, the two geometric isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene (Figure 2) have the molecular formula of C2H2Cl2, and the same structural formula of Cl(H)C=C(H)Cl, but the relative position of the two chlorine atoms can either be the same side of the C=C double bond (i.e., cis, see Figure 2a) or on opposite sides of the C=C double bond (i.e., trans, see Figure 2b). The use of cis and trans is not limited to organic compounds such as olefins, but can also be used in metal complexes, e.g., Figure 3. Figure 2: The two geometric isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. Figure 3: Examples of (a) cis and (b) trans geometric isomers for metal complexes. When it is not possible to describe geometric isomers by the terms cis or trans, the terms facial (fac, Figure 4a) or meridinal (mer, Figure 4b) are commonly employed. Examples of (a) fac and (b) mer geometric isomers for metal complexes. POLARIMETRY AND OPTICAL ROTATION Polarized light is obtained by passing ordinary light through a polarizer , such as nicol prism.The orientation of the polarizers axis of polarization determines the plane of the resulting polarized light. OPTICAL ACTIVITY:- Unpolarized light from a suitable source is made to pass through a polarizer that usually consists of a pair of crossed Nichol prisms. The light leaving the polarizer is plane polarized and, in the diagram, the angle of the Nichol prisms has been adjusted to produce vertically polarized light. This light is then passed through a tube containing the sample. If the sample is optically active, the plane of the polarized light will be rotated, as shown in figure The extent of rotation will depend on the polarizability of the substance and its concentration. The light from the sample cell is then passed through another pair of crossed Nichol prisms called the analyzer. The analyzer prisms are then rotated so that the transmitted light is again vertically polarized. The angle through which the analyzer has been turned is called the angle of polarization. Clockwise rotation of polarized light is designated as (+) and anti clockwise rotation as ( ). The established method of defining rotatio n is that the (+) isomer is termed dextro and the ( ) isomer laevo. Optical activities of enantiomer A pair of enantiomer are distinguised by their optical activites because a pair of enantiomers rotates the plane of polarized light by equal amounts in opposite direction. In a mixture of two enantiomers, each contribute to the optical rotation in proportion to its concentration.It follows that a sample containing equal amounts of two enantiomer must have an observed optical rotation of zero. Enantiomer of tartaric acid is: ENANTIOMER Enantiomers are compounds that have the same ordering of atoms as each other, but that differ from one another when viewed in three dimensions. The compound drawn to the left is an enantiomer because it has the H3C group projecting up from the page toward the reader. The corresponding enantiomer would have the H3C group projecting below the page away from the reader. A racemic mixture refers to a 50:50 mixture of two corresponding enantiomers. CHIRALITY Chirality is a structural property of an object. An object is said to bechiral if its mirror image can not be superimposed with itself by the means of rotations. The most familiar example of a chiral object is our hand. To see this, we first have to convince ourselves that our two hands are mirror images of each other. Then we can spend hours rotating our two hands around and trying to superimpose them point-to-point, only to find out that it is impossible. Thus a human hand is a chiral object. An object is said to be achiral if its mirror image is its exact replica DIASTEREOMER They are different physical/chemical properties in chiral/achiral environments. Stereoisomers that are not enantiomer are called diastereomers. FISHER PROJECTION Fischer projections are used to visually describe various isomers of the same compound in two dimensions. They are also used as a basic test for optical activity (or chirality). The Fischer projection looks like a cross, with the (invisible) asymmetric carbon located at the points where the lines cross. The horizontal lines are taken to be wedges, or bonds that project out of the plane of the paper. The vertical lines are taken to project away form the viewer, or back below the plane of the paper, as dashed lines. CONFIGURATION Configurational isomers are defined as molecules of identical atomic composition and bonding arrangements of atoms, but different orientations of atoms in space, and these different orientations cannot interconvert freely by bond rotation. Since these types of isomers differ only in relative spatial orientations of atoms, they are commonly referred to as stereoisomers. Configurational stereoisomers are subcategorized as optical isomers (enantiomers) or geometric isomers (Fig. 2), depending upon the hybridization state and geometry of the atoms that impart the properties of stereoisomerism and the overall structure of the molecule. Stereoisomers of this type are distinct chemical entities that may have different chemical and physical properties. CONFORMATION Conformational isomers (conformers) are stereoisomeric forms characterized by different relative spatial arrangements of atoms that result from rotation about sigma bonds. Thus, unlike configurational isomers, conformers are interconverting stereochemical forms of a single compound. STEREOCHEMICAL CORRELATION The absolute configuration of most organic compounds are determined instead by using chemical reaction correlate with other compounds of known absolute compounds is known as stereochemical correlation. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CHEMICAL REACTION No chemical reaction can be planned without stereochemical details,and no chemical reaction can be planned without considering problems oe stereochemistry that might arise. A.STEREOCHEMICHEMISTRY OF ADDITION REACTION An addition reaction can occur in either of two stereochemically different ways,called syn addition and anti addition. Stereochemistry of an addition can be determined only when the stereochemically different modes of addition give rise to stereochemically different products. Syn and anti addition gives different products only when both carbons of the double bond becomes carbon stereocentre in the product. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SUBSITITUTION REACTION A substitution reaction can occur in two stereochemically different ways, called retention of configuration and inversion of configuration then x and x have the same relative stereochemical position. Substation rxn with retention of configuration is It implies that if x and x have the same relative priorities in the R,S system then the carbon that undergoes subsititution will have the same configuration in the reactant and the product. When the subsititution occur with inversion of configuration then x and x have different relative stereochemical positions. Subsititution with inversion of configuration is: They have same relative priorities in the R,S system, then the carbon that undergoes substitution must have opposite configuration in the reactant and the product. Stereochemistry of   Reactions Two products are formed when a chiral substrate that possesses an asymmetric, electrophilic carbon is applied in an   reaction. One of them has the same absolute configuration as the starting product (if, according to the CIP rules, the leaving group and the nucleophile have the same position in the priority order of the substituents), which is called retention. In contrast, the other product possesses the opposite absolute configuration, known as inversion. In reactions, the nucleofuge exits the substrate before the nucleophilic attack can ever occur. Thus, an intermediate carbocation is then formed. Due to the carbocations trigonal planar shape, its two enantiotopic sides are susceptible to attack by the nucleophile with the same probability. Stereochemistry of  Reactions If a pure enantiomer is applied to an reaction, three different stereochemical results are conceivable: The initial spatial arrangement of the reaction centers substituents remains (retention). The initial substituents spatial arrangement is inverted (inversion). Retention, as well as inversion takes place. If retention and inversion occur to the same degree, the reaction yields a racemate (racemization). Stereochemistry of E2 Elimination In the E2 elimination reaction, the carbon-hydrogen sigma bond and the carbon-leaving group sigma bond must lie in the same plane. This allows the orbitals to begin to overlap to form the pi bond as the bonds to the hydrogen and the leaving group are broken. There are two possible planar arrangements of these bonds: both on the same side of the C-C bond (syn-coplanar); or on opposite sides of the C-C bond (anti-coplanar) In syn the bond from the carbon to the leaving group (green) and the bond from the other carbon to the hydrogen (blue) are syn-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is zero degrees. This conformation is eclipsed about the carbon-carbon bond In anti the bond from the carbon to the leaving group (green) and the bond from the other carbon to the hydrogen (blue) are anti-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is 180 degrees. This conformation is staggered about the carbon-carbon bond. Because this conformation is more stable than the eclipsed conformation required for syn elimination, anti elimination is preferred in E2 reactions STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKANE Conformations Alkane conformers arise from rotation around sp3 hybridised carbon carbon sigma bonds. The smallest alkane with such a chemical bond, ethane, exists as an infinite number of conformations with respect to rotation around the C-C bond. Two of these are recognised as energy minimum (staggered) and energy maximum (eclipsed) forms. The existence of specific conformations is due to hindered rotation around sigma bonds, although a role for hyperconjugation is proposed by a competing theory. CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMER There are different types of isomer. Isomers such as butane and isobutane that differ in the connectivity of their atom are termed as constitutional isomer.butane and isobutane are only constitutional isomer with the formulaC4H10 . However ,more constitutional isomer are possibles for alkane with more carbon atoms. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKENE The stereochemistry of halogen addition is unequivocally determined by the anti addition and the almost completely restricted rotation of the carbon-carbon bond of the halonium ion. Therefore, the bromination of cis-2-butene yields a racemate of (2R,3R)- and (2S,3S)-dibromobutane, whereas the bromination of trans-2-butene yields the meso compound. CIS TRANS GEOMETRY OF ALKENE If alkenes have two different substituents at each end of the C=C then they can exist as stereoisomers (as geometric isomers ). This is because there is restricted rotation of the double bond due to the pi bond CIS TRANS E-Z SYSTEM The cis- / trans- style is based on the longest chain whereas the E/Z style is based on a set of priority rules.   You need to know both styles. Z SYSTEM cis-but-2-eneor (Z)-but-2-ene The E- and Z- style is more reliable and particularly suited to highly substituted alkenes, especially when the substituents are not alkyl groups. STEREOCHEMISTRY:-FUTURE PROSPECTUS AND APLLICATION 1.Temperature modulation of the stereochemistry of enzymatic catalys. 2.It is used in medical purpose for malarial prevention, control and research 3.The HeI resonance line used for UPS was produced by DC discharge of pure helium gas. 4. Stereochemistry is highly used in biochemistry in various purposes like enzyme catalyst e.t.c. 5. Penning ionization is known to be one of the most important types of chemical reaction in aerospace. Steric shielding effect of methyl group an penning ionization in subsitutional aniline. 6. Stereochemistry is always used in discovering new compounds 7. Stereochemistry is used to know the property and other new property of the existing compound or the compounds not knownà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. REFRENCES Hehre, W.J.(1975),J.AM.CHEM KARLE J.(1973),ELECTRON DIFRACTION IN NACHOD,F.C AND ZUKERMAN, VOL 5 P12. ELIEL L. ERNEST(2009),STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS,WILEY STUDENT EDITION LOUDON MARC G.(2009),4th EDITON ,ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ,OXFORD UNIERSITY PRESS WEBSITE http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Example_of_stereoisomers http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://img121.imageshack.us/img121/5564/81111276.jpgimgrefurl=http://www.chemicalforums.com/index. WWW.CHEMISTRY.UK www.wileyindia/chem.com